Peer pressure
Peer pressure is a term describing the pressure exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change their attitude, behavior and/or morals, to conform to, for example, the group's actions, fashion sense, taste in music and television, or outlook on life. Social groups affected include membership groups, when the individual is "formally" a member (for example, a political party or trade union), and social cliques. A person affected by peer pressure may, or may not want to, belong to these groups. They may also recognize dissociative groups with which they would not wish to associate, and thus they behave adversely concerning that group's behaviors. Most people who smoke say that they started or continued because of peer pressure. There are two types of peer pressure: positive and negative. Positive peer pressure is when someone tries to help you change something about yourself for the better, and negative peer pressure is the opposite. It can also be used to pressure someone into having sex without a condom. For popularity, drugs, money, etc. Peer pressure is most commonly associated with youth, in part because most youth spend large amounts of time in schools and other fixed groups that they do not choose and are seen as lacking the maturity to handle pressure from friends. Also, young people are more willing to behave negatively towards those who are not members of their own peer groups. Peer pressure can also have positive effects when people are pressured toward positive behavior, such as volunteering for charity or excelling in academics or athletics, by their peers. This is most commonly seen in youths who are active in sports or other extracurricular activities where conformity with one's peer group is strongest. Risk behavior While socially accepted kids are the best in high school because of having the most class resources, the most opportunities and the most positive experiences, research shows that being in the popular crowd may also be a risk factor for mild to moderate deviant behavior. Popular adolescents are the most socialized into their peer groups and thus are vulnerable to peer pressures, such as behaviors usually reserved for those of a greater maturity and understandingcial. Socially accepted kids are often accepted for the sheer fact that they conform well to the norms of teen culture, good and bad aspects included. Popular adolescents are more strongly associated with their peer groupsike alcohol, cigarettes and drugs. Although there are a few risk factors correlated with popularity, deviant behavior is often only mild to moderate. Regardless, social acceptance provides more overall protective factors than risk factors.Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh, & McElhaney (2005). The two faces of adolescents' success with pears : Adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior. Child Development .. megha and diksha, 76, 757-760. Asch conformity The Asch conformity experiments were a series of laboratory studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated a surprising degree of conformity to a majority opinion. These are also known as the Asch Paradigm. Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College asked groups of students to participate in a "vision test." In reality, all but one of the participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study was really about how the remaining student would react to the confederates' behavior. The Third Wave The Third Wave was an experiment to demonstrate the appeal of fascism undertaken by history teacher Ron Jones with sophomore high school students attending his Contemporary History as part of a study of Nazi Germany. The experiment took place at Cubberley High School in Palo Alto, California, during the first week of April 1967. Jones, unable to explain to his students how the German populace could claim ignorance of the extermination of the Jewish people, decided to show them instead. Jones started a movement called "The Third Wave" and convinced his students that the movement is to eliminate democracy. The fact that democracy emphasizes individuality was considered as a drawback of democracy, and Jones emphasized this main point of the movement in its motto: "Strength through discipline, strength through community, strength through action, strength through pride". The Third Wave experiment is an example of risk behavior in authoritarian and peer pressure situations.Weinfield, L (1991). Remembering the 3rd Wave. Retrieved March 6, 2010.Jones, Ron (1972). THE THIRD WAVE. Retrieved March 6, 2010. It is one useful tool in leadership. Instead of direct delegation of tasks and results demanding, employees are in this case, induced into a behaviour of self propelled performance and innovation, by comparison feelings towards their peers. There are several ways peer pressure can be induced in a working environment. Examples are: training, team meetings. Training since the team member is in contact with people with comparable roles in other organizations. Team meetings since there will be an implicit comparison between every team member especially if the meeting agenda is the presentation of results and goal status.Salvador, José (2009). MBA CookBook. Neural mechanisms Neuroimaging identifies the anterior insula and anterior cingulate as key areas in the brain determining whether people conform in their preferences in regard to its being popular with their peer group.Berns GS, Capra CM, Moore S, Noussair C. (2010). Neural mechanisms of the influence of popularity on adolescent ratings of music. Neuroimage. 49:2687–2696. PMID 19879365 Explanation An explanation of how the peer pressure process works, called "the identity shift effect", is introduced by social psychologist, Wendy Treynor, who weaves together Festinger's two seminal social-psychological theories (on dissonance, which addresses internal conflict, and social comparison, which addresses external conflict) into a unified whole. According to Treynor’s original "identity shift effect" hypothesis, the peer pressure process works in the following way: One's state of harmony is disrupted when faced with the threat of external conflict (social rejection) for failing to conform to a group standard. Thus, one conforms to the group standard, but as soon as one does, eliminating this external conflict, internal conflict is introduced (because one has violated one's own standards). To rid oneself of this internal conflict (self-rejection), an "identity shift" is undertaken, where one adopts the group's standards as one's own, thereby eliminating internal conflict (in addition to the formerly eliminated external conflict), returning one to a state of harmony. Even though the peer pressure process begins and ends with one in a (conflict-less) state of harmony, as a result of conflict and the conflict resolution process, one leaves with a new identity—a new set of internalized standards.Treynor (2009). Towards a General Theory of Social Psychology: Understanding Human Cruelty, Human Misery, and, Perhaps, a Remedy (A Theory of the Socialization Process). Redondo Beach: Euphoria Press. See also * Classmates * Collective narcissism * Blue eyes/Brown eyes * Friendship * DARE * Group dynamics * Groupshift * Groupthink * Interpersonal influences * Likeability * Milgram experiment * Milieu control * Normative * Peers * Peer evaluation * Peer relations * Persuasive communication * Popularity * Social acceptance * Social approval * Social norms marketing * Socialization * Stanford prison experiment * Temptation * The Third Wave References Further reading *Abbey, A., Jacques, A. J., Hayman, L. W., Jr., & Sobeck, J. (2006). Predictors of Early Substance Use Among African American and Caucasian Youth from Urban and Suburban Communities: Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Vol 52(2) Apr 2006, 305-326. *Abdelrahman, A. I., Rodriguez, G., Ryan, J. A., French, J. F., & Weinbaum, D. (1998). The epidemiology of substance use among middle school students: The impact of school, familial, community and individual risk factors: Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse Vol 8(1) 1998, 55-75. *Adamczyk-Robinette, S. L., Fletcher, A. C., & Wright, K. (2002). Understanding the authoritative parenting-early adolescent tobacco use link: The mediating role of peer tobacco use: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 31(4) Aug 2002, 311-318. *Adams, M. S. (1993). Labeling and differential association: Towards a general social learning perspective of crime and deviance: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Adegoke, A. A., & Ayoade, C. A. (2007). Relationships among leisure, social self-image, peer pressure and at-risk behaviours of adolescents in Nigeria: Journal of Psychology in Africa Vol 17(1-2) 2007, 73-78. *Agrawal, A., Lynskey, M. T., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A. F., & Heath, A. C. (2007). Correlates of cannabis initiation in a longitudinal sample of young women: The importance of peer influences: Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory Vol 45(1) Jul 2007, 31-34. *Alati, R., Liamputtong, P., & Peterson, C. (2003). 'It was a nice day...a beautiful day': An analysis of relapse into substance misuse among Indigenous drinkers: Drug and Alcohol Review Vol 22(2) Jun 2003, 135-141. *Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valente, T. (2001). Peers, schools, and adolescent cigarette smoking: Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 29(1) Jul 2001, 22-30. *Allen, M., Donohue, W. A., Griffin, A., Ryan, D., & Turner, M. M. M. (2003). Comparing the influence of parents and peers on the choice to use drugs: Criminal Justice and Behavior Vol 30(2) Apr 2003, 163-186. *Allison, G. C. (2004). The influences of gender, parents and friends on the alcohol-related problems of college freshmen. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Aloise-Young, P. A., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1994). Peer influence on smoking initiation during early adolescence: A comparison of group members and group outsiders: Journal of Applied Psychology Vol 79(2) Apr 1994, 281-287. *Aluede, O., & Ikechukwu, B. N. (2003). Analysis of the Variables that Predispose Adolescents to Dropout of Schools: International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling Vol 25(2-3) Sep 2003, 181-192. *Alves, J. (1993). Transgressions and transformations: Initiation rites among urban Portuguese boys: American Anthropologist Vol 95(4) Dec 1993, 894-928. *An, L., Mertig, A. G., & Liu, J. (2003). Adolescents leaving parental home: Psychosocial correlates and implications for conservation: Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Vol 24(5) May 2003, 415-444. *Andrews, J. A., Tildesley, E., Hops, H., & Li, F. (2002). The influence of peers on young adult substance use: Health Psychology Vol 21(4) Jul 2002, 349-357. *Arbona, C., Jackson, R. H., McCoy, A., & Blakely, C. (1999). Ethnic identity as a predictor of attitudes of adolescents toward fighting: Journal of Early Adolescence Vol 19(3) Aug 1999, 323-340. *Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Tercyak, K. P., Epstein, L. H., Goldman, P., & Wileyto, E. P. (2004). Applying a Behavioral Economic Framework to Understanding Adolescent Smoking: Psychology of Addictive Behaviors Vol 18(1) Mar 2004, 64-73. *Ausems, M., Mesters, I., van Breukelen, G., & De Vries, H. (2002). Short-term effects of a randomized computer-based out-of-school smoking prevention trial aimed at elementary schoolchildren: Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory Vol 34(6) Jun 2002, 581-589. *Bamaca, M. Y., & Umana-Taylor, A. J. (2006). Testing a Model of Resistance to Peer Pressure Among Mexican-Origin Adolescents: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 35(4) Aug 2006, 631-645. *Banachowski-Fuller, C. A. (1997). Peer influences, parental bonds, school bonds, and perceived peer pressure to commit delinquent behavior. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Banerjee, R., & Dittmar, H. (2008). Individual differences in children's materialism: The role of peer relations: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Vol 34(1) Jan 2008, 17-31. *Barber, J. G., Bolitho, F., & Bertrand, L. D. (1999). Intrapersonal versus peer group predictors of adolescent drug use: Children and Youth Services Review Vol 21(7) Jul 1999, 565-579. 8Barber, J. G., Bolitho, F., & Bertrand, L. D. (1999). The predictors of adolescent smoking: Journal of Social Service Research Vol 26(1) 1999, 51-66. *Barnes, G. M., Farrell, M. P., & Dintcheff, B. A. (1997). Family socialization effects on alcohol abuse and related problem behaviors among female and male adolescents. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies. *Baron, S. W., Forde, D. R., & Kennedy, L. W. (2007). Disputatiousness, aggressiveness, and victimization among street youths: Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice Vol 5(4) Oct 2007, 411-425. *Barr, T. F. (1993). On their own: The effects of independence on the consumer skills, attitudes, motives and misbehaviors of late adolescents: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Bauman, K. E., & Ennett, S. T. (1996). On the importance of peer influence for adolescent drug use: Commonly neglected considerations: Addiction Vol 91(2) Feb 1996, 185-198. *Becklake, M. R., Ghezzo, H., & Ernst, P. (2005). Childhood predictors of smoking in adolescence: A follow-up study of Montreal schoolchildren: Canadian Medical Association Journal Vol 173(4) Aug 2005, 377-379. *Bejarano, J., Ugalde, F., & Morales, D. (2005). A life Skills Training programme evaluation in Costa Rica: Adicciones Vol 17(1) 2005, 71-80. *Belansky, E. S. (1995). Predicting women's marital and family choices: Understanding the roles of self-concepts of ability, gender-role traditionally, peers, and values. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Benda, B. B., & Corwyn, R. F. (1997). Religion and delinquency: The relationship after considering family and peer influences: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion Vol 36(1) Mar 1997, 81-92. *Bennett, M. D., Jr., & Fraser, M. W. (2000). Urban violence among African American males: Integrating family, neighborhood, and peer perspectives: Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare Vol 27(3) Sep 2000, 93-117. *Benthin, A., Slovic, P., & Severson, H. (1993). A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception: Journal of Adolescence Vol 16(2) Jun 1993, 153-168. *Berndt, T. J. (1996). Friendships in adolescence. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. *Berndt, T. J. (1996). Transitions in friendship and friends' influence. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. *Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school: Child Development Vol 66(5) Oct 1995, 1312-1329. *Besser, T. L. (1993). The commitment of Japanese workers and U.S. workers: A reassessment of the literature: American Sociological Review Vol 58(6) Dec 1993, 873-881. *Best, D., Manning, V., & Strang, J. (2007). Retrospective recall of heroin initiation and the impact on peer networks: Addiction Research & Theory Vol 15(4) Aug 2007, 397-410. *Bischoff, M. W. (1993). College male self-reported sexual aggression: Sexual and aggressive predictors of levels of past behavior and present likelihood to sexually aggress: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Blickle, G. (2003). Some outcomes of pressure, ingratiation, and rational persuasion used with peers in the workplace: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 33(3) Mar 2003, 648-665. *Borden, L. M., Donnermeyer, J. F., & Scheer, S. D. (2001). The influence of extra-curricular activities and peer influence on substance use: Adolescent & Family Health Vol 2(1) Spr 2001, 12-19. *Borsari, B., & Carey, K. B. (2001). Peer influences on college drinking: A review of the research: Journal of Substance Abuse Vol 13(4) 2001, 391-424. *Boyle, C. (2006). Review of Good choices: Teaching young people aged 8 to 11 to make positive decisions about their own lives: Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 22(4) Dec 2006, 390-391. *Boys, A., Marsden, J., Griffiths, P., Fountain, J., Stillwell, G., & Strang, J. (1999). Substance use among young people: The relationship between perceived functions and intentions: Addiction Vol 94(7) Jul 1999, 1043-1050. *Bradley, G., & Wildman, K. (2002). Psychosocial predictors of emerging adults' risk and reckless behaviors: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 31(4) Aug 2002, 253-265. *Braithwaite, J., Westbrook, M. T., & Mallock, N. A. (2007). Pressures exerted on managers by their superior and peer managers: Australian-Singaporean comparisons: Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol 22(3) 2007, 227-256. *Britt, M. A., & Jachym, N. K. (1996). Cigarette and alcohol use among 4th and 5th graders: Results of a new survey: Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education Vol 41(3) Spr 1996, 44-54. *Brooks, A. J., Stuewig, J., & LeCroy, C. W. (1998). A family based model of Hispanic adolescent substance use: Journal of Drug Education Vol 28(1) 1998, 65-86. *Broome, K. M., Knight, D. K., Knight, K., Hiller, M. L., & et al. (1997). Peer, family, and motivational influences on drug treatment process and recidivism for probationers: Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol 53(4) Jun 1997, 387-397. *Brown, B. R., Jr., Baranowski, M. D., Kulig, J. W., Stephenson, J. N., & Perry, B. (1996). Searching for the Magic Johnson effect: AIDS, adolescents, and celebrity disclosure: Adolescence Vol 31(122) Sum 1996, 253-264. *Burton, B. A., Ray, G. E., & Mehta, S. (2003). Children's evaluations of peer influence: The role of relationship type and social situation: Child Study Journal Vol 33(4) 2003, 235-255. *Byely, L., Archibald, A. B., Graber, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting: International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 28(2) Sep 2000, 155-164. *Caldwell, L. L., Weichold, K., & Smith, E. A. (2006). Peer influence, substance use and leisure: A cross-cultural comparison: Sucht: Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft und Praxis Vol 52(4) Aug 2006, 261-267. *Campanelli, P. C., Dielman, T. E., Shope, J. T., Butchart, A. T., & et al. (1989). Pretest and treatment effects in an elementary school-based alcohol misuse prevention program: Health Education Quarterly Vol 16(1) Spr 1989, 113-1300. *Carroll, A., Houghton, S., Hattie, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). Reputation enhancing goals: Integrating reputation enhancement and goal setting theory as an explanation of delinquent involvement. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. *Chavez, N. R., & French, S. E. (2007). Ethnicity-related stressors and mental health in Latino Americans: The moderating role of parental racial socialization: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 37(9) Sep 2007, 1974-1998. *Cheshire, A., & Lewis, D. (2004). Young People and Adults in a Team Against Harassment: Bringing Forth Student Knowledge and Skill. New York, NY: Haworth Press. *Christensen, S., & Morrongiello, B. A. (1997). The influence of peers on children's judgments about engaging in behaviors that threaten their safety: Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology Vol 18(4) 1997, 547-562. *Clair, S. (1998). A cusp catastrophe model for adolescent alcohol use: An empirical test: Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology, and Life Sciences Vol 2(3) Jul 1998, 217-241. *Claire, T. V. (1994). Perceptions of social norms and the consequences of deviating from them. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Clark, R. J. (1995). Adolescent high risk factors for drug use, and development toward a school drug prevention program. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Clark, V. L. P., Miller, D. L., Creswell, J. W., McVea, K., McEntarffer, R., Harter, L. M., et al. (2002). In conversation: High school students talk to students about tobacco use and prevention strategies: Qualitative Health Research Vol 12(9) Nov 2002, 1264-1283. *Cleveland, H. H., Wiebe, R. P., & Rowe, D. C. (2005). Sources of Exposure to Smoking and Drinking Friends Among Adolescents: A Behavioral-Genetic Evaluation: Journal of Genetic Psychology Vol 166(2) Jun 2005, 153-169. *Codina, G. E., Yin, Z., Katims, D. S., & Zapata, J. T. (1998). Marijuana use and academic achievement among Mexican American school-age students: Underlying psychosocial and behavioral characteristics: Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse Vol 7(3) 1998, 79-96. *Coggans, N., & McKellar, S. (1994). Drug use amongst peers: Peer pressure or peer preference? : Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy Vol 1(1) 1994, 15-26. *Cole, R. E., Kalleberg, A. L., & Lincoln, J. R. (1993). Assessing commitment in the United States and Japan: A comment on Besser: American Sociological Review Vol 58(6) Dec 1993, 882-885. *Conner, M., & McMillan, B. (1999). Interaction effects in the theory of planned behavior: Studying cannabis use: British Journal of Social Psychology Vol 38(2) Jun 1999, 195-222. *Connor, M. J. (1994). Peer relations and peer pressure: AEP (Association of Educational Psychologists) Journal Vol 9(4) Jan 1994, 207-215. *Corwyn, R. F., & Benda, B. B. (2001). Violent youths in southern public schools in America: International Journal of Adolescence and Youth Vol 10(1-2) 2001, 69-90. *Courneya, K. S. (1995). Understanding readiness for regular physical activity in older individuals: An application of the theory of planned behavior: Health Psychology Vol 14(1) Jan 1995, 80-87. *Crockett, L. J., Raffaelli, M., & Shen, Y.-L. (2006). Linking Self-Regulation and Risk Proneness to Risky Sexual Behavior: Pathways through Peer Pressure and Early Substance Use: Journal of Research on Adolescence Vol 16(4) Dec 2006, 503-525. *Crone, M. R., Reijneveld, S. A., Willemsen, M. C., van Leerdam, F. J. M., Spruijt, R. D., & Sing, R. A. H. (2003). Prevention of smoking in adolescents with lower education: A school based intervention study: Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health Vol 57(9) Sep 2003, 675-680. *Croskey, L. (1999). An analysis of personal psychosocial and cognitive factors between pregnant and/or parenting and never-pregnant Black adolescent females. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Crossman, L. L. (1995). Date rape and sexual aggression by college males: Incidence and the involvement of impulsivity, anger, hostility, psychopathology, peer influence and pornography use. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Cunningham, M. (1994). Expressions of manhood: Predictors of educational achievement and African American adolescent males. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Curtner-Smith, M. E., & MacKinnon-Lewis, C. E. (1994). Family process effects on adolescent males' susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure: Family Relations Vol 43(4) Oct 1994, 462-468. *De La Rosa, M., Rugh, D., & Rice, C. (2006). An analysis of risk domains associated with drug transitions of active Latino gang members: Journal of Addictive Diseases Vol 25(4) 2006, 81-90. *Denscombe, M. (2001). Peer group pressure, young people and smoking: New developments and policy implications: Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy Vol 8(1) Feb 2001, 7-32. *Diego, M. A., Field, T. M., & Sanders, C. E. (2003). Academic performance, popularity, and depression predict adolescent substance use: Adolescence Vol 38(149) Spr 2003, 35-42. *Dobkin, P. L., Tremblay, R. E., Masse, L. C., & Vitaro, F. (1995). Individual and peer characteristics in predicting boys' early onset of substance abuse: A seven-year longitudinal study: Child Development Vol 66(4) Aug 1995, 1198-1214. *Doherty, W. J. (2001). Take back your marriage: Sticking together in a world that pulls us apart. New York, NY: Guilford Press. *Donavan, D. T., & Singh, S. N. (1999). Sun-safety behavior among elementary school children: The role of knowledge, social norms, and parental involvement: Psychological Reports Vol 84(3, Pt 1) Jun 1999, 831-836. *Donohew, L., Clayton, R. R., Skinner, W. F., & Colon, S. (1999). Peer networks and sensation seeking: Some implications for primary socialization theory: Substance Use & Misuse Vol 34(7) Jun 1999, 1013-1023. *Dornbusch, S. M., Laird, J., & Crosnoe, R. (1999). Parental and school resources that assist adolescents in coping with negative peer influences. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. *Drout, C. E., Becker, T., Bukkosy, S., & Mansell, M. (1994). Does social influence mitigate or exacerbate responsibility for rape? : Journal of Social Behavior & Personality Vol 9(3) Sep 1994, 409-420. *Dsilva, M. U. (1999). Individual differences and choice of information source: Sensation seeking in drug abuse prevention: Communication Reports Vol 12(1) Win 1999, 51-57. *Dubow, E. F., Arnett, M., Smith, K., & Ippolito, M. F. (2001). Predictors of future expectations of inner-city children: A 9-month prospective study: Journal of Early Adolescence Vol 21(1) Feb 2001, 5-28. *Dukes, R. L., Ullman, J. B., & Stein, J. A. (1996). Three-year follow-up of drug abuse resistance education (D.A.R.E.): Evaluation Review Vol 20(1) Feb 1996, 49-66. *Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., & Strycker, L. A. (2006). Alcohol use from ages 9 to 16: A cohort-sequential latent growth model: Drug and Alcohol Dependence Vol 81(1) Jan 2006, 71-81. *Dupre, D., Miller, N., Gold, M., & Rospenda, K. (1995). Initiation and progression of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine use among adolescent abusers: The American Journal on Addictions Vol 4(1) Win 1995, 43-48. *Eamon, M. K. (2001). Poverty, parenting, peer and neighborhood influences on young adolescent antisocial behavior: Journal of Social Service Research Vol 28(1) 2001, 1-23. *Elford, J., Bolding, G., & Sherr, L. (2001). Peer education has no significant impact on HIV risk behaviours among gay men in London: AIDS Vol 15(4) Mar 2001, 535-538. *Elliott, R., & Leonard, C. (2004). Peer pressure and poverty: Exploring fashion brands and consumption symbolism among children of the 'British poor': Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol 3(4) Jun 2004, 347-359. *Engels, R. C. M. E. (2003). The relative role of friends in the development of adolescent substance use: Gedrag & Gezondheid: Tijdschrift voor Psychologie en Gezondheid Vol 31(5) Dec 2003, 350-357. *Engle, B. (2007). Review of Deviant peer influences in programs for youth: Journal of Adolescent Research Vol 22(3) May 2007, 324-326. *Eskilson, A., & Wiley, M. G. (1987). Parents, peers, perceived pressure, and adolescent self-concept: Is a daughter a daughter all of her life? : Sociological Quarterly Vol 28(1) Spr 1987, 135-145. *Etter, J.-F., & Bouvier, P. (2006). Some doubts about one of the largest smoking prevention programmes in Europe, the smokefree class competition: Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health Vol 60(9) Sep 2006, 757-759. *Fahey, W. E. (1993). A study investigating the cognitive variables involved in adolescent use of alcohol: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Fang, X. (1994). Relationship of normal peer pressure and direct peer pressure to adolescents' substance use: Acta Psychologica Sinica Vol 26(3) 1994, 240-246. *Farrell, A. D., & White, K. S. (1998). Peer influences and drug use among urban adolescents: Family structure and parent-adolescent relationship as protective factors: Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Vol 66(2) Apr 1998, 248-258. *Fergerson, G. (1998). Whither "culture" in adolescent health research? : Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 23(3) Sep 1998, 150-152. *Flannery, D. J., Williams, L. L., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (1999). Who are they with and what are they doing? Delinquent behavior, substance use, and early adolescents' after-school time: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol 69(2) Apr 1999, 247-253. *Foney, D. M., & Cunningham, M. (2002). Why Do Good Kids Do Bad Things? Considering Multiple Contexts in the Study of Antisocial Fighting Behaviors in African American Urban Youth: Journal of Negro Education Vol 71(3) Sum 2002, 143-157. *Ford, D. Y., & Moore, J. L., III. (2006). Being Gifted and Adolescent: Issues and Needs of Students of Color. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. *Forsberg, A. D., King, G., Delaronde, S. R., & Geary, M. K. (1996). Maintaining safer sex behaviours in HIV-infected adolescents with haemophilia: AIDS Care Vol 8(6) Dec 1996, 629-640. *Fowler, T., Shelton, K., Lifford, K., Rice, F., McBride, A., Nikolov, I., et al. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship between peer alcohol use and own alcohol use in adolescents: Addiction Vol 102(6) Jun 2007, 894-903. *Frauenglass, S., Routh, D. K., Pantin, H. M., & Mason, C. A. (1997). Family support decreases influence of deviant peers on Hispanic adolescents' substance use: Journal of Clinical Child Psychology Vol 26(1) Mar 1997, 15-23. *Frenkel, C. M. (1993). A comparison study of Puerto Rican students who finished high school and those who abandoned their education: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Fridrich, A. H., & Flannery, D. J. (1995). The effects of ethnicity and acculturation on early adolescent delinquency: Journal of Child and Family Studies Vol 4(1) Mar 1995, 69-87. *Fried, C. S., & Reppucci, N. D. (2001). Criminal decision making: The development of adolescent judgment, criminal responsibility, and culpability: Law and Human Behavior Vol 25(1) Feb 2001, 45-61. *Friedlander, L. J., Connolly, J. A., Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. M. (2007). Biological, familial, and peer influences on dating in early adolescence: Archives of Sexual Behavior Vol 36(6) Dec 2007, 821-830. *Fuemmeler, B. F., Taylor, L. A., Metz, A. E., Jr., & Brown, R. T. (2002). Risk-taking and smoking tendency among primarily African American school children: Moderating influences of peer susceptibility: Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings Vol 9(4) Dec 2002, 323-330. *Furman, C. E., & Duke, R. A. (1988). Effect of majority consensus on preferences for recorded orchestral and popular music: Journal of Research in Music Education Vol 36(4) Win 1988, 220-231. *Gainey, R. R., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Hoppe, M. J. (1997). Deviance among the children of heroin addicts in treatment: Impact of parents and peers: Deviant Behavior Vol 18(2) Apr-Jun 1997, 143-159. *Galaif, E. R., Newcomb, M. D., Vega, W. A., & Krell, R. D. (2007). Protective and risk influences of drug use among a multiethnic sample of adolescent boys: Journal of Drug Education Vol 37(3) 2007, 249-276. *Gallagher, J. J. (1965). Divergence on Creativity? : PsycCRITIQUES Vol 10 (3), Mar, 1965. *Gangloff, B. (1994). Masked deviance and declared deviance: Differences in social pressures to conform: Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale No 22 Jun 1994, 51-65. *Garcia-Pindado, G. (1993). Peer influence in adolescent drug use: Psiquis: Revista de Psiquiatria, Psicologia y Psicosomatica Vol 15(4) May 1993, 39-47. *Gaughan, M. (2000). Predisposition and pressure: Getting drunk in adolescent friendships. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Geckova, A., & van Dijk, J. P. (2001). Peer impact on smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use and sports activities in adolescents: Studia Psychologica Vol 43(2) 2001, 113-123. *Gelven, E. S. (2003). Maladaptive eating patterns in college students: Associations with peer attachment style, coping and pressure to diet. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., & DeMaris, A. (1993). The family and peer relations of Black adolescents: Journal of Marriage & the Family Vol 55(2) May 1993, 277-287. *Gladney, L. S. (1998). Fictive kinship, racial identity, peer influence, attitudes toward school, and future goals: Relationships with achievement for African American high school students. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Godbold, L. C. (1999). Conferring resistance to peer pressure among adolescents: Using the inoculation paradigm to discourage alcohol use. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Gonzalez, B., Huerta-Sanchez, E., Ortiz-Nieves, A., Vazquez-Alvarez, T., & Kribs-Zaleta, C. (2003). Am I too fat? Bulimia as an epidemic: Journal of Mathematical Psychology Vol 47(5-6) Oct-Dec 2003, 515-526. *Good, T. L., Nichols, S. L., & Sabers, D. L. (1999). Underestimating youth's commitment to schools and society: Toward a more differentiated view: Social Psychology of Education Vol 3(1-2) 1999, 1-39. *Goodman, J. F. (2001). Niceness and the Limits of Rules: Journal of Moral Education Vol 30(4) Dec 2001, 349-375. *Grant, M., & O'Connor, J. (2005). Corporate social responsibility and alcohol: The need and potential for partnership. New York, NY: Routledge. *Green, E. A. (1995). Family, peer and self factors as predictors of male and female adolescent substance use at 9th and 12th grade. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Greene, K., Krcmar, M., Rubin, D. L., Walters, L. H., & Hale, J. L. (2002). Elaboration in processing adolescent health messages: The impact of egocentrism and sensation seeking on message processing: Journal of Communication Vol 52(4) Dec 2002, 812-831. *Greenleaf, C. (2004). Weight Pressure and Social Physique Anxiety Among Collegiate Synchronized Skaters: Journal of Sport Behavior Vol 27(3) Sep 2004, 260-276. *Griffith, M. A., Dubow, E. F., & Ippolito, M. F. (2000). Developmental and cross-situational differences in adolescents' coping strategies: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 29(2) Apr 2000, 183-204. *Grogan, S., & Richards, H. (2002). Body image: Focus groups with boys and men: Men and Masculinities Vol 4(3) Jan 2002, 219-232. *Guimond, S. (1999). Attitude change during college: Normative or informational social influence? : Social Psychology of Education Vol 2(3-4) 1999, 237-261. *Guzman, B. L., Arruda, E., & Feria, A. L. (2006). Los Papas, La Familia y La Sexualidad. New York, NY: New York University Press. *Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2007). Understanding pluralistic ignorance in organizations: Application and theory: Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol 22(1) 2007, 65-83. *Hatfield, E., & Rapson, R. L. (2005). Social justice and the clash of cultures: Psychological Inquiry Vol 16(4) 2005, 172-175. *Hawkins, S. R. (1999). The impact of school transition and family cohesion on African American adolescent girls living in resource poor inner-city communities. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Heimer, K. (1997). Socioeconomic status, subcultural definitions, and violent delinquency: Social Forces Vol 75(3) Mar 1997, 799-833. *Hektner, J. M., August, G. J., & Realmuto, G. M. (2003). Effects of pairing aggressive and nonaggressive children in strategic peer affiliation: Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Vol 31(4) Aug 2003, 399-412. *Henriksen, L., Flora, J. A., Feighery, E., & Fortmann, S. P. (2002). Effects on youth exposure to retail tobacco advertising: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 32(9) Sep 2002, 1771-1789. *Henry, K. L., Slater, M. D., & Oetting, E. R. (2005). Alcohol Use in Early Adolescence: The Effect of Changes in Risk Taking, Perceived Harm and Friends'Alcohol Use: Journal of Studies on Alcohol Vol 66(2) Mar 2005, 275-283. *Herlache, L. R. (1995). Factors related to children's social goal development. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Higgins, G. E., & Makin, D. A. (2004). Self-control, Deviant Peers, and Software Piracy: Psychological Reports Vol 95(3,Part1) Dec 2004, 921-931. *Hirsch, C. A. (1996). Everyday ideas about gang membership and gang violence: An ethnographic content analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Hoffman, B. R. (2006). Multiple methods of measuring peer influence and peer selection for adolescent smoking. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Hoffman, B. R., Monge, P. R., Chou, C.-P., & Valente, T. W. (2007). Perceived peer influence and peer selection on adolescent smoking: Addictive Behaviors Vol 32(8) Aug 2007, 1546-1554. *Holm, K., Kremers, S. P. J., & De Vries, H. (2003). Why do Danish adolescents take up smoking? : European Journal of Public Health Vol 13(1) Mar 2003, 67-74. *Holzhausen, K. G. (1993). Normative and informational influences in conformity, persuasion, and group polarization: A unified paradigm of social influence: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Hopkins, N. (1994). Peer group processes and adolescent health-related behaviour: More than "peer group pressure"? : Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology Vol 4(5) Dec 1994, 329-345. *Hops, H., Andrews, J. A., Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., & Tildesley, E. (2000). Adolescent drug use development: A social interactional and contextual perspective. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. *Hospers, H. J., & Jansen, A. (2005). Why homosexuality is a risk factor for eating disorders in males: Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology Vol 24(8) Dec 2005, 1188-1201. *Hovell, M., Blumberg, E., Sipan, C., Hofstetter, C. R., Burkham, S., Atkins, C., et al. (1998). Skills training for pregnancy and AIDS prevention in Anglo and Latino youth: Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 23(3) Sep 1998, 139-149. *Hu, F. B., Flak, B. R., Hedeker, D., Siddiqui, O., & et al. (1995). The influences of friends' and parental smoking on adolescent smoking behavior: The effects of time and prior smoking: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 25(22) Nov 1995, 2018-2047. *Hurry, J., & McGurk, H. (1997). An evaluation of a primary prevention programme for schools: Addiction Research Vol 5(1) Apr 1997, 23-38. *Hyde, J. S., & Jaffee, S. R. (2000). Becoming a heterosexual adult: The experiences of young women: Journal of Social Issues Vol 56(2) Sum 2000, 283-296. *Ilhan, I. O., Dogan, Y. B., Demirbas, H., & Boztas, M. H. (2002). Examination of Risk Factors for the Beginning of Alcohol Use According to Developmental Periods in Alcohol Dependent Subjects: Bagimlik Dergisi Vol 3(2) Aug 2002, 84-90. *Irvin, D. M. (1996). Psychosocial and cultural predictors of alcohol use among African American and Caucasian adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Jackson, C. (1997). Inital and experimental stages of tobacco and alcohol use during late childhood: Relation to peer, parent, and personal risk factors: Addictive Behaviors Vol 22(5) Sep-Oct 1997, 685-698. *Jacobs, M. J. (2003). The anorectic poverty of self: Eating disorders and young women. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Jacquin, K. M., Harrison, M. L., & Afford, S. M. (2006). Gender and peer presence influence responses to aggressive provocation: American Journal of Forensic Psychology Vol 24(3) 2006, 29-44. *Jay, M. (1999). Why do people take drugs? : International Journal of Drug Policy Vol 10(1) Feb 1999, 5-7. *Jenkins, J. E. (1996). The influence of peer affiliation and student activities on adolescent drug involvement: Adolescence Vol 31(122) Sum 1996, 297-306. *Jones-Webb, R., Toomey, T. L., Short, B., Murray, D. M., Wagenaar, A., & Wolfson, M. (1997). Relationships among alcohol availability, drinking location, alcohol consumption and drinking problems in adolescents: Substance Use & Misuse Vol 32(10) Aug 1997, 1261-1285. *Jordan, S. A. (2000). An exploration of risk factors for aggression in relationships. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Jowers, K. L., Bradshaw, C. P., & Gately, S. (2007). Taking school-based substance abuse prevention to scale: District-wide implementation of Keep A Clear Mind: Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education Vol 51(3) Sep 2007, 73-91. *Kandel, D. B. (1996). The parental and peer contexts of adolescent deviance: An algebra of interpersonal influences: Journal of Drug Issues Vol 26(2) Spr 1996, 289-315. *Karcher, M. J., & Finn, L. (2005). How Connectedness Contributes to Experimental Smoking Among Rural Youth: Developmental and Ecological Analyses: Journal of Primary Prevention Vol 26(1) Jan 2005, 25-36. *Keefe, K. (1994). Perceptions of normative social pressure and attitudes toward alcohol use: Changes during adolescence: Journal of Studies on Alcohol Vol 55(1) Jan 1994, 46-54. *Keena, K., Loeber, R., Zhang, Q., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1995). The influence of deviant peers on the development of boys' disruptive and delinquent behavior: A temporal analysis: Development and Psychopathology Vol 7(4) Fal 1995, 715-726. *Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., & Asplund-Peltola, R.-L. (1995). Agreement between social problem-solving scripts of aggressive and sociable adolescents and their parents: Aggressive Behavior Vol 21(6) 1995, 419-429. *Kiran-Esen, B. (2003). Examining the adolescents' smoking according to their peer pressure levels and gender: Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri Vol 3(1) May 2003, 167-188. *Klein, J. (2004). The Effect of Pressure Among Teachers on Evaluation of Achievement: Research in the Schools Vol 11(1) Spr 2004, 14-21. *Knee, C. R., & Neighbors, C. (2002). Self-determination, perception of peer pressure, and drinking among college students: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 32(3) Mar 2002, 522-543. *Kohn, L., Kittel, F., & Piette, D. (2004). Peer, family integration and other determinants of cannabis use among teenagers: International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health Vol 16(4) Oct-Dec 2004, 359-370. *Krahe, B., Waizenhofer, E., & Moller, I. (2003). Women's Sexual Aggression Against Men: Prevalence and Predictors: Sex Roles Vol 49(5-6) Sep 2003, 219-232. *Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Thornberry, T. P., & Smith, C. (1996). Reciprocal causal relationships among drug use, peers, and beliefs: A five-wave panel model: Journal of Drug Issues Vol 26(2) Spr 1996, 405-428. *Kropp, F., Lavack, A. M., & Holden, S. J. S. (1999). Smokers and beer drinkers: Values and consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence: Journal of Consumer Marketing Vol 16(6) 1999, 536-557. *Kulkoski, K. E. (2006). A cusp catastrophe model of college student alcohol use. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Kung, E. M., & Farrell, A. D. (2000). The role of parents and peers in early adolescent substance use: An examination of mediating and moderating effects: Journal of Child and Family Studies Vol 9(4) Dec 2000, 509-528. *Kuntsche, E., Rehm, J., & Gmel, G. (2004). Characteristics of binge drinkers in Europe: Social Science & Medicine Vol 59(1) Jul 2004, 113-127. *Kusa, D. (1995). Creativity and conformity: Prosocial aspects of conformist behavior (Trans N. Korcova): Studia Psychologica Vol 37(5) 1995, 335-343. *Ladegaard, H. J. (2004). Politeness in young children's speech: Context, peer group influence and pragmatic competence: Journal of Pragmatics Vol 36(11) Nov 2004, 2003-2022. *Lam, S.-F. (2003). Chinese Parenting and Adolescents' Susceptibility to Peer Pressure: A Multi-Dimensional Approach: Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies Vol 3(2) 2003, 183-204. *Langlois, M. A., Petosa, R. L., & Hallam, J. S. (2005). Measuring self-efficacy and outcome expectations for resisting social pressures to smoke: Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse Vol 15(2) 2005, 1-17. *Lashbrook, J. T. (2000). Fitting in: Exploring the emotional dimension of adolescent peer pressure: Adolescence Vol 35(140) Win 2000, 747-757. *Lawrence, P. A. (1998). Psychological risk factors and substance abuse among young adults: A comparison of non-Hispanic Whites and Mexican Americans. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. *Lazuras, L., & Rodafinos, A. (2006). Survey of Smoking Attitudes in Grade School Children in Greece: A Preliminary Study: European Addiction Research Vol 12(1) 2006, 20-24. *Leventhal, A. (1998). Adolescent peer pressure for drinking and smoking: Measurement beyond the stereotype. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Lieberman, M., Gauvin, L., Bukowski, W. M., & White, D. R. (2001). Interpersonal influence and disordered eating behaviors in adolescent girls: The role of peer modeling, social reinforcement, and body-related teasing: Eating Behaviors Vol 2(3) Fal 2001, 215-236. *Lindner, M. A. (1997). The role of public self-consciousness and conformity in females' judgments of a rape victim. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Liu, X. (2000). The conditional effect of peer groups on the relationship between parental labeling and youth delinquency: Sociological Perspectives Vol 43(3) Fal 2000, 499-514. *Lloyd, B. B., Lucas, K., Holland, J., McGrellis, S., & Arnold, S. (1998). Smoking in adolescence: Images and identities. Florence, KY: Taylor & Frances/Routledge. *Lo, S. K., Blaze-Temple, D., Binns, C. W., & Ovenden, C. (1993). Adolescent cigarette consumption: The influence of attitudes and peer drug use: International Journal of the Addictions Vol 28(14) Dec 1993, 1515-1530. *Logsdon, J. A. (2003). An ecological perspective on team effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Loksa, J., Loksova, I., & Korcova, N. (2000). Analysis of the effect of socio-psychological factors on creative performance: Studia Psychologica Vol 42(3) 2000, 209-216. *Loveland-Cherry, C. J., Leech, S., Laetz, V. B., & Dielman, T. E. (1996). Correlates of alcohol use and misuse in fourth-grade children: Psychosocial, peer, parental and family factors: Health Education Quarterly Vol 23(4) Nov 1996, 497-511. *Lucas, K., & Lloyd, B. (1999). Starting smoking: Girls' explanations of the influence of peers: Journal of Adolescence Vol 22(5) Oct 1999, 647-655. *Lyman, M. D. (1993). Drug abuse maintenance among teen-aged youth: A comparison of selected youths from the general population and youths in custody in the northeast region of the state of Missouri: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Madden, P. A. F., Bucholz, K. K., Todorov, A. A., Grant, J. D., & Heath, A. C. (2002). The Assessment of Peer Selection and Peer Environmental Influences on Behavior Using Pairs of Siblings or Twins: Twin Research Vol 5(1) Feb 2002, 38-43. *Maddock, J. E., Laforge, R. G., & Rossi, J. S. (1999). Short form of a situational temptation scale for heavy, episodic drinking: Journal of Substance Abuse Vol 11(3) 1999, 281-288. *Maddox, R. T. (2002). Peer pressure, coping, and racial identity among academically achieving Black adolescent females: An exploratory study. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Malow-Iroff, M. S. (2001). The influence of siblings and close friendships on early adolescent cigarette and alcohol expectancies. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Mangleburg, T. F., & Bristol, T. (1998). Socialization and adolescents' skepticism toward advertising: Journal of Advertising Vol 27(3) Fal 1998, 11-21. *Mangleburg, T. F., Doney, P. M., & Bristol, T. (2004). Shopping with friends and teens' susceptibility to peer influence: Journal of Retailing Vol 80(2) Sum 2004, 101-116. *Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Ellickson, P. L., Schell, T. L., & McCaffrey, D. (2006). Socio-environmental influences on adolescents' alcohol outcome expectancies: A prospective analysis: Addiction Vol 101(7) Jul 2006, 971-983. *Mason, W. A., & Windle, M. (2001). Family, religious, school and peer influences on adolescent alcohol use: A longitudinal study: Journal of Studies on Alcohol Vol 62(1) Jan 2001, 44-53. *Maxwell, K. A. (2001). Do friends matter? The role of peer influence on adolescent risk behavior. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *May, D. C. (1999). Scared kids, unattached kids, or peer pressure: Why do students carry firearms to school? : Youth & Society Vol 31(1) Sep 1999, 100-127. *McBroom, J. R. (1994). Correlates of alcohol and marijuana use among junior high school students: Family, peers, school problems, and psychosocial concerns: Youth & Society Vol 26(1) Sep 1994, 54-68. *McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). A longitudinal study of body change strategies among adolescent males: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 32(2) Apr 2003, 105-113. *McIntosh, J., MacDonald, F., & McKeganey, N. (2003). The initial use of drugs in a sample of pre-teenage schoolchildren: The role of choice, pressure and influence: Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy Vol 10(2) May 2003, 147-158. *McIntosh, J., MacDonald, F., & McKeganey, N. (2006). Why do children experiment with illegal drugs? The declining role of peer pressure with increasing age: Addiction Research & Theory Vol 14(3) Jun 2006, 275-287. *McKenna, H., Slater, P., McCance, T., Bunting, B., Spiers, A., & McElwee, G. (2003). The role of stress, peer influence and education levels on the smoking behaviour of nurses: International Journal of Nursing Studies Vol 40(4) May 2003, 359-366. *Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. (1995). Identity development, parental and peer support in adolescence: Results of a national Dutch survey: Adolescence Vol 30(120) Win 1995, 931-944. *Michell, L., & West, P. (1996). Peer pressure to smoke: The meaning depends on the method: Health Education Research Vol 11(1) Mar 1996, 39-49. *Milgram, G. G. (2001). Alcohol influences: The role of family and peers. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge. *Millsaps-Linger, P. M. (1996). Adolescent substance use: Relationships among family, personality and peer drug associations and level of use. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Mizuno, Y., Kennedy, M., Seals, B., & Myllyluoma, J. (2000). Predictors of teens' attitudes toward condoms: Gender differences in the effects of norms: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 30(7) Jul 2000, 1381-1395. *Montoya, I. D. (2005). Effect of peers on employment and implications for drug treatment: American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Vol 31(4) 2005, 657-668. *Mooney, D. K. (1994). Alcohol expectancies: The role of reinforcement value, perceived peer expectancies and a minimal psycho-educational intervention. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Mora-Rios, J., Unikel-Santoncini, C., Saldivar-Hernandez, G., & Natera-Rey, G. (1995). Causal attributions to drugs among high school students: Revista Mexicana de Psicologia Vol 12(1) Jun 1995, 23-31. *Morrongiello, B. A., & Dawber, T. (2004). Identifying Factors that Relate to Children's Risk-Taking Decisions: Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des Sciences du comportement Vol 36(4) Oct 2004, 255-266. *Mukai, T. (1993). The socialization of weight preoccupation and dieting behavior among Japanese adolescent girls: Maternal and peer influences: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Mulry, G. W. (1994). Using predictors of adolescent substance use to contrast frequent drug users, experimenters, and abstainers: A discriminant analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Murray, S. H., Touyz, S. W., & Beumont, P. J. V. (1995). The influence of personal relationships on women's eating behavior and body satisfaction: Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention Vol 3(3) Fal 1995, 243-252. *Murray, S. R. (1999). FACE: Fear of loss of face and the five hazardous attitudes concept: International Journal of Aviation Psychology Vol 9(4) 1999, 403-411. *Musher-Eizenman, D. R., Holub, S. C., & Arnett, M. (2003). Attitude and peer influences on adolescent substance use: The moderating effect of age, sex, and substance: Journal of Drug Education Vol 33(1) 2003, 1-23. *Nadler, E. B. (1959). Yielding, authoritarianism, and authoritarian ideology regarding groups: The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology Vol 58(3) May 1959, 408-410. *Needle, R. H., Su, S. S., & Doherty, W. J. (1990). Divorce, remarriage, and adolescent substance use: A prospective longitudinal study: Journal of Marriage & the Family Vol 52(1) Feb 1990, 157-169. *Neumark-Sztainer, D., Falkner, N., Story, M., Perry, C., Hannan, P. J., & Mulert, S. (2002). Weight-teasing among adolescents: Correlations with weight status and disordered eating behaviors: International Journal of Obesity Vol 26(1) Jan 2002, 123-131. *No authorship, i. (2004). Review of Adolescent Health Sourcebook (First Edition): Family Therapy Vol 31(1) 2004, 56. *No authorship, i. (2004). Review of My Son Is an Alien: A Cultural Portrait of Today's Youth: Family Therapy Vol 31(1) 2004, 47-48. *Oi-bing, D. L. (1995). Troubled and troublesome: Young people, urbanization and the case of Hong Kong: International Social Work Vol 38(4) Oct 1995, 325-339. *Oliff, L. S. (1997). Accepting/refusing sexual bids differing in verbal coercion: Women's self-in-relation-to-other. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Palmer, R. F., Graham, J. W., White, E. L., & Hansen, W. B. (1998). Applying multilevel analytic strategies in adolescent substance use prevention research: Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory Vol 27(3) May-Jun 1998, 328-336. *Pamm, C. J. (2001). Effect of attitudes toward women and other attitudinal variables on the formation of rape callousness and sexual misconduct among African, European, and Asian-American college students at a prestigious northeastern university: A longitudinal study. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Paschall, M. J., Flewelling, R. L., & Russell, T. (2004). Why Is Work Intensity Associated With Heavy Alcohol Use Among Adolescents? : Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 34(1) Jan 2004, 79-87. *Paton-Simpson, G. (2001). Socially obligatory drinking: A sociological analysis of norms governing minimum drinking levels: Contemporary Drug Problems Vol 28(1) Spr 2001, 133-177. *Paul, C., Fitzjohn, J., Eberhart-Phillips, J., Herbison, P., & Dickson, N. (2000). Sexual abstinence at age 21 in New Zealand: The importance of religion: Social Science & Medicine Vol 51(1) Jul 2000, 1-10. *Paxton, S. J., Schutz, H. K., Wertheim, E. H., & Muir, S. L. (1999). Friendship clique and peer influences on body image concerns, dietary restraint, extreme weight-loss behaviors, and binge eating in adolescent girls: Journal of Abnormal Psychology Vol 108(2) May 1999, 255-266. *Pearl, R. (2002). Students with learning disabilities and their classroom companions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. *Pearson, M., & Michell, L. (2000). Smoke rings: Social network analysis of friendship groups, smoking and drug-taking: Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy Vol 7(1) Feb 2000, 21-37. *Pepler, D. J., Craig, W. M., Connolly, J., & Henderson, K. (2002). Bullying, sexual harassment, dating violence, and substance use among adolescents. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge. *Perrine, N. E., & Aloise-Young, P. A. (2004). The role of self-monitoring in adolescents' susceptibility to passive peer pressure: Personality and Individual Differences Vol 37(8) Dec 2004, 1701-1716. *Peterson, D. K. (2003). The relationship between ethical pressure, relativistic moral beliefs and organizational commitment: Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol 18(6) 2003, 557-572. *Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., & Feliziola, P. (1998). Formation of purchasing intention: Perception of quality, satisfaction, and personal and social aspects of identity: Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata Vol 225 Jan-Mar 1998, 39-45. *Piko, B. (2001). Smoking in adolescence: Do attitudes matter? : Addictive Behaviors Vol 26(2) Mar-Apr 2001, 201-217. *Piko, B. F. (2006). Adolescent smoking and drinking: The role of communal mastery and other social influences: Addictive Behaviors Vol 31(1) Jan 2006, 102-114. *Pilgrim, C. (1998). Close friend's drug use, authoritative parenting and sensation seeking effects on drug use among European-American and African-American adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Pilkington, H. (2007). Beyond 'peer pressure': Rethinking drug use and 'youth culture.' International Journal of Drug Policy Vol 18(3) May 2007, 213-224. *Poelen, E. A. P., Engels, R. C. M. E., Vorst, H. V. D., Scholte, R. H. J., & Vermulst, A. A. (2007). Best friends and alcohol consumption in adolescence: A within-family analysis: Drug and Alcohol Dependence Vol 88(2-3) May 2007, 163-173. *Powell, J. L., & Drucker, A. D. (1997). The role of peer conformity in the decision to ride with an intoxicated driver: Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education Vol 43(1) Fal 1997, 1-7. *Principe, G. F., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). "I saw it with my own ears": The effects of peer conversations on preschoolers' reports of nonexperienced events: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology Vol 83(1) Sep 2002, 1-25. *Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Spirito, A. (2001). Adolescents' and their friends' health-risk behavior: Factors that alter or add to peer influence: Journal of Pediatric Psychology Vol 26(5) Jul 2001, 287-298. *Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L. J. (2003). Sexual Risk Taking in Adolescence: The Role of Self-Regulation and Attraction to Risk: Developmental Psychology Vol 39(6) Nov 2003, 1036-1046. *Rao, V., & Flores, G. (2007). Why aren't there more African-American physicians? A qualitative study and exploratory inquiry of African-American students' perspectives on careers in medicine: Journal of the National Medical Association Vol 99(9) Sep 2007, 986-993. *Reed, M. D., & Rountree, P. W. (1997). Peer pressure and adolescent substance use: Journal of Quantitative Criminology Vol 13(2) Jun 1997, 143-180. *Rimm, S. (2002). Peer pressures and social acceptance of gifted students. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. *Robertson, S. B., & Jackson, C. (1996). Initiation of cigarette smoking among children with and without learning disabilities: Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics Vol 17(4) Aug 1996, 248-252. *Robin, S. S., & Johnson, E. O. (1996). Attitude and peer cross pressure: Adolescent drug and alcohol use: Journal of Drug Education Vol 26(1) 1996, 69-99. *Rolison, M. R. (2002). College student risk-taking from a decision-making perspective: Including the effects of sensation-seeking, locus of control, and peer influence. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Reid, H., Rosario, M., & Kasen, S. (1995). Determinants of safer sex patterns among gay/bisexual male adolescents: Journal of Adolescence Vol 18(1) Feb 1995, 3-15. *Roy, M. (2003). Self-directed workteams and safety: A winning combination? : Safety Science Vol 41(4) Jun 2003, 359-376. *Royce, J. M., Corbett, K., Sorensen, G., & Ockene, J. (1997). Gender, social pressure, and smoking cessations: The Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation (COMMIT) at baseline: Social Science & Medicine Vol 44(3) Feb 1997, 359-370. *Rubenstein, A., & Zager, K. (2002). Why can't she ever think for herself! Adolescent girls and their peer group. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Rugkasa, J., Kennedy, O., Barton, M., Abaunza, P. S., Treacy, M. P., & Knox, B. (2001). Smoking and symbolism: Children, communication and cigarettes: Health Education Research Vol 16(2) Apr 2001, 131-142. *Rukavina, T., & Pokrajac-Bulian, A. (2006). Thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating disorders in Croatian adolescent girls: Eating and Weight Disorders Vol 11(1) Mar 2006, 31-37. *Salminen, S. (1995). Does pressure from the work community increase risk taking? : Psychological Reports Vol 77(3, Pt 2) Dec 1995, 1247-1250. *Sample, C. J. (1993). A study to assess and explore the youth risk behavior of Livingston County public school students in Grades 10-22: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Santor, D. A., Messervey, D., & Kusumakar, V. (2000). Measuring peer pressure, popularity, and conformity in adolescent boys and girls: Predicting school performance, sexual attitudes, and substance abuse: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 29(2) Apr 2000, 163-182. *Schroeder, C. M. (1993). Applying the concept of collective norms to alcohol education: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Schulenberg, J., & Maggs, J. L. (2001). Moving targets: Modeling developmental trajectories of adolescent alcohol misuse, individual and peer risk factors, and intervention effects: Applied Developmental Science Vol 5(4) 2001, 237-253. *Schwartz, S. J., Coatsworth, J. D., Pantin, H., Prado, G., Sharp, E. H., & Szapocznik, J. (2006). The role of ecodevelopmental context and self-concept in depressive and externalizing symptoms in Hispanic adolescents: International Journal of Behavioral Development Vol 30(4) Jul 2006, 359-370. *Shaffer, D. R. (2000). Social and Personality development (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. *Shek, D. T. L., & Lam, C.-M. (2006). Adolescent cough medicine abuse in Hong Kong: Implications for the design of positive youth development programs in Hong Kong: International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health Vol 18(3) Jul-Sep 2006, 493-503. *hope, J. T., Raghunathan, T. E., & Patil, S. M. (2003). Examining trajectories of adolescent risk factors as predictors of subsequent high-risk driving behavior: Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 32(3) Mar 2003, 214-224. *Short, G. (1999). Antiracist Education and Moral Behaviour: Lessons from the Holocaust: Journal of Moral Education Vol 28(1) Mar 1999, 49-62. *Short, J. F., Jr. (2001). Youth collectivities and adolescent violence. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. *Shroff, H. M. (2005). An examination of peer related risk and protective factors for body image disturbance and disordered eating in adolescent girls. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Sim, T. N. (1998). A model of susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure for singapore adolescents: Integrating process, person, context, and time. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Sim, T. N. (2000). Adolescent psychosocial competence: The importance and role of regard for parents: Journal of Research on Adolescence Vol 10(1) 2000, 49-64. *Sim, T. N., & Koh, S. F. (2003). Domain Conceptualization of Adolescent Susceptibility to Peer Pressure: Journal of Research on Adolescence Vol 13(1) 2003, 58-80. *Simon, T. R., Dent, C. W., & Sussman, S. (1997). Vulnerability to victimization, concurrent problem behaviors, and peer influence as predictors of in-school weapon carrying among high school students: Violence and Victims Vol 12(3) Fal 1997, 277-289. *Simons-Morton, B., Chen, R., Abroms, L., & Haynie, D. L. (2004). Latent Growth Curve Analyses of Peer and Parent Influences on Smoking Progression Among Early Adolescents: Health Psychology Vol 23(6) Nov 2004, 612-621. *Simons-Morton, B., Haynie, D. L., Crump, A. D., Eitel, P., & Saylor, K. E. (2001). Peer and parent influences on smoking and drinking among early adolescents: Health Education & Behavior Vol 28(1) Feb 2001, 95-107. *Singer, E., & Doornenbal, J. (2006). Learning Morality in Peer Conflict: A study of schoolchildren's narratives about being betrayed by a friend: Childhood: A Global Journal of Child Research Vol 13(2) May 2006, 225-245. *Sira, N. (2005). Body image: Relationship to attachment, body mass index and dietary practices among college students. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Sjoberg, R. L. (2000). The catechism effect: Child testimonies during a 17th-century witch panic as related to educational achievement: Memory Vol 8(2) Mar 2000, 65-69. *Slater, M. D. (2003). Sensation-seeking as a moderator of the effects of peer influences, consistency with personal aspirations and perceived harm on marijuana and cigarette use among younger adolescents: Substance Use & Misuse Vol 38(7) 2003, 865-880. *Smith, G. P. W. (2001). The relationship between parental involvement, peer pressure, and self-concept to first-semester freshman grade-point average for honors and non-honors students. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Smith, T. E., & Leaper, C. (2006). Self-Perceived Gender Typicality and the Peer Context During Adolescence: Journal of Research on Adolescence Vol 16(1) Mar 2006, 91-103. *Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). Sociocultural Influences and Muscle Building in Adolescent Boys: Psychology of Men & Masculinity Vol 6(4) Oct 2005, 227-239. *Snyder, E. E. (2001). Interpretations and explanations of deviance among college athletes: A case study. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. *Sobeck, J., Abbey, A., Agius, E., Clinton, M., & Harrison, K. (2000). Predicting early adolescent substance use: Do risk factors differ depending on age of onset? : Journal of Substance Abuse Vol 11(1) 2000, 89-102. *Sorensen, G., Emmons, K., Stoddard, A. M., Linnan, L., & Avrunin, J. (2002). Do social influences contribute to occupational differences in quitting smoking and attitudes toward quitting? : American Journal of Health Promotion Vol 16(3) Jan-Feb 2002, 135-141. *Spiegler, D. L., Harford, T. C., & Freeman, E. M. (1985). An ecological perspective on alcohol use among adolescents: Implications for prevention. Springfield, IL, England: Charles C Thomas, Publisher. *Squire, D. (1997). The causes of delinquency as seen through the eyes of some delinquents themselves. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence: Developmental Psychology Vol 43(6) Nov 2007, 1531-1543. *Stephens, H. (2005). How long and how strong: An examination of the impact peer pressure has on young adults. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Stice, E., Maxfield, J., & Wells, T. (2003). Adverse effects of social pressure to be thin on young women: An experimental investigation of the effects of "fat talk": International Journal of Eating Disorders Vol 34(1) Jul 2003, 108-117. *Stump, C. W. (1995). Women's eating attitudes and body image in coed and single sex high schools: An exploration of social contagion. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Sullivan, C. J. (2006). Early Adolescent Delinquency: Assessing the Role of Childhood Problems, Family Environment, and Peer Pressure: Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice Vol 4(4) Oct 2006, 291-313. *Suls, J., & Green, P. (2003). Pluralistic ignorance and college student perceptions of gender-specific alcohol norms: Health Psychology Vol 22(5) Sep 2003, 479-486. *Surette, R. (2002). Self-reported copycat crime among a population of serious and violent juvenile offenders: Crime & Delinquency Vol 48(1) Jan 2002, 46-69. *Sussman, S., Hahn, G., Dent, C. W., Stacy, A. W., & et al. (1993). Naturalistic observation of adolescent tobacco use: International Journal of the Addictions Vol 28(9) Jul 1993, 803-811. *Tabor, E. B. (2005). Review of The Power of Persuasion: How We're Bought and Sold: Psychiatric Services Vol 56(5) May 2005, 614. *Tang, C. S. K., & Wong, C. S. Y. (1996). Marijuana and heroin use in Hong Kong adolescents: Substance Use & Misuse Vol 31(1) Jan 1996, 115-125. *Taylor, J. (2006). Life events and peer substance use and their relation to substance use problems in college students: Journal of Drug Education Vol 36(2) 2006, 179-191. *Taylor, J., Lloyd, D. A., & Warheit, G. J. (2005). Self-derogation, peer factors, and drug dependence among a multiethnic sample of young adults: Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse Vol 15(2) 2005, 39-51. *Thomas-Cottingham, A. D. (1999). The effects of friendship quality on black middle school students' responses to peer pressure. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Tolman, D. L. (2002). Dilemmas of desire: Teenage girls talk about sexuality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. *Trafimow, D. (1994). Predicting intentions to use a condom from perceptions of normative pressure and confidence in those perceptions: Journal of Applied Social Psychology Vol 24(24) Dec 1994, 2151-2163. *Tragesser, S. L., Aloise-Young, P. A., & Swaim, R. C. (2006). Peer Influence, Images of Smokers, and Beliefs about Smoking among Preadolescent Nonsmokers: Social Development Vol 15(2) May 2006, 311-325. *Tragesser, S. L., Beauvais, F., Swaim, R. C., Edwards, R. W., & Oetting, E. R. (2007). Parental monitoring, peer drug involvement, and marijuana use across three ethnicities: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Vol 38(6) Nov 2007, 670-694. *Umana-Taylor, A. J., & Bamaca-Gomez, M. (2003). Generational Differences in Resistance to Peer Pressure Among Mexican-Origin Adolescents: Youth & Society Vol 35(2) Dec 2003, 183-203. *Ungar, M. T. (2000). The myth of peer pressure: Adolescence Vol 35(137) Spr 2000, 167-180. *Unger, J. B., Rohrbach, L. A., Cruz, T. B., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., Howard, K. A., Palmer, P. H., et al. (2001). Ethnic variation in peer influences on adolescent smoking: Nicotine & Tobacco Research Vol 3(2) May 2001, 167-176. *Unger, J. B., Rohrbach, L. A., Howard-Pitney, B., Ritt-Olson, A., & Mouttapa, M. (2001). Peer influences and susceptibility to smoking among Californian adolescents: Substance Use & Misuse Vol 36(5) 2001, 551-571. *Urberg, K. A., Degirmencioglu, S. M., & Pilgrim, C. (1997). Close friend and group influence on adolescent cigarette smoking and alcohol use: Developmental Psychology Vol 33(5) Sep 1997, 834-844. *Urberg, K. A., Luo, Q., Pilgrim, C., & Degirmencioglu, S. M. (2003). A two-stage model of peer influence in adolescent substance use: Individual and relationship-specific differences in susceptibility to influence: Addictive Behaviors Vol 28(7) Sep 2003, 1243-1256. *Urberg, K. A., Luo, Q., Pilgrim, C., & Degirmencioglu, S. M. (2004). Corrigendum to "A two-stage model of peer influence in adolescent substance use: Individual and relationship-specific differences in susceptibility to influence": Addictive Behaviors Vol 29(3) May 2004, 639. *Van Boven, L. (2000). Pluralistic ignorance and political correctness: The case of affirmative action: Political Psychology Vol 21(2) Jun 2000, 267-276. *Vincent, M. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2000). Gender differences among adolescents in family, and peer influences on body dissatisfaction, weight loss, and binge eating behaviors: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 29(2) Apr 2000, 205-221. *Wagner, E. F. (1993). Delay of gratification, coping with stress, and substance use in adolescence: Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 1(1-4) Oct 1993, 27-43. *Waguespack, B. P., Jr. (1996). Influences impacting female teenagers' clothing interest: A consumer socialization perspective. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. *Wall, J. A. (1994). The role of acculturation in the prediction of susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure among Mexican-American adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. *Wall, J. A., Power, T. G., & Arbona, C. (1993). Susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure and its relation to acculturation in Mexican-American adolescents: Journal of Adolescent Research Vol 8(4) Oct 1993, 403-418. *Wang, M. Q., Eddy, J. M., & Fitzhugh, E. C. (2000). Smoking acquisition: Peer influence and self-selection: Psychological Reports Vol 86(3,Pt2) Jun 2000, 1241-1246. *Wang, M. Q., Fitzhugh, E. C., Eddy, J. M., Fu, Q., & et al. (1997). Social influences on adolescents' smoking progress: A longitudinal analysis: American Journal of Health Behavior Vol 21(2) Mar-Apr 1997, 111-117. *Washington, M., & Ventresca, M. J. (2004). How Organizations Change: The Role of Institutional Support Mechanisms in the Incorporation of Higher Education Visibility Strategies, 1874-1995: Organization Science Vol 15(1) Jan-Feb 2004, 82-97. *Weatherburn, D., & Lind, B. (1997). On the epidemiology of offender populations: Australian Journal of Psychology Vol 49(3) Dec 1997, 169-175. *Weber Cullen, K., Baranowski, T., Rittenberry, L., Cosart, C., Hebert, D., & de Moor, C. (2001). Child-reported family and peer influences on fruit, juice and vegetable consumption: Reliability and validity of measures: Health Education Research Vol 16(2) Apr 2001, 187-200. *Webster, R. A., Hunter, M., & Keats, J. A. (1994). Peer and parental influences on adolescents' substance use: A path analysis: International Journal of the Addictions Vol 29(5) Apr 1994, 647-657. *Wei, H.-s., & Williams, J. H. (2004). Relationship between Peer Victimization and School Adjustment in Sixth-Grade Students: Investigating Mediation Effects: Violence and Victims Vol 19(5) Oct 2004, 557-571. *Weiss, M. S. (2000). Culture, context and content analysis: An exploration of elite women gymnasts in the high school world. New York, NY: Berg. *Werner, N. E., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2003). Family relationship quality and contact with deviant peers as predictors of adolescent problem behaviors: The moderating role of gender: Journal of Adolescent Research Vol 18(5) Sep 2003, 454-480. *West, P., & Michell, L. (1999). Smoking and peer influence. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. *White, S. O. (2001). Reasoning and justice. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. *White, V. M., Hopper, J. L., Wearing, A. J., & Hill, D. J. (2003). The role of genes in tobacco smoking during adolescence and young adulthood: a multivariate behaviour genetic investigation: Addiction Vol 98(8) Aug 2003, 1087-1100. *Wicks, D. (2001). Institutionalized mindsets of invulnerability: Differentiated institutional fields and the antecedents of organizational crisis: Organization Studies Vol 22(4) 2001, 659-692. *Wild, T. C., Cunningham, J. A., & Ryan, R. M. (2006). Social pressure, coercion, and client engagement at treatment entry: A self-determination theory perspective: Addictive Behaviors Vol 31(10) Oct 2006, 1858-1872. *Willner, P. (2001). A view through the gateway: Expectancies as a possible pathway from alcohol to cannabis: Addiction Vol 96(5) May 2001, 691-703. *Wills, T. A., & Cleary, S. D. (1999). Peer and adolescent substance use among 6th-9th Graders: Latent growth analyses of influence versus selection mechanisms: Health Psychology Vol 18(5) Sep 1999, 453-463. *Wolf, Y., Olenick-Shemesh, D., Addad, M., Green, D., & et al. (1995). Personal and situational factors in drug use as perceived by kibbutz youth: Adolescence Vol 30(120) Win 1995, 909-930. *Wood, M. D., Read, J. P., Mitchell, R. E., & Brand, N. H. (2004). Do Parents Still Matter? Parent and Peer Influences on Alcohol Involvement Among Recent High School Graduates: Psychology of Addictive Behaviors Vol 18(1) Mar 2004, 19-30. *Wood, M. D., Read, J. P., Palfai, T. P., & Stevenson, J. F. (2001). Social influence processes and college student drinking: The mediational role of alcohol outcome expectations: Journal of Studies on Alcohol Vol 62(1) Jan 2001, 32-43. *Wright, A. J., Nichols, T. R., Graber, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Botvin, G. J. (2004). It's Not What You Say, It's How Many Different Ways You Can Say It: Links Between Divergent Peer Resistance Skills and Delinquency a Year Later: Journal of Adolescent Health Vol 35(5) Nov 2004, 380-391. *Yanovitzky, I. (2006). Sensation Seeking and Alcohol Use by College Students: Examining Multiple Pathways of Effects: Journal of Health Communication Vol 11(3) Apr-May 2006, 269-280. *Yarnold, B. M., & Patterson, V. (1995). Factors correlated with adolescents' use of crack in public schools: Psychological Reports Vol 76(2) Apr 1995, 467-474. *Yen, C.-F., Hsu, S.-Y., & Cheng, C.-P. (2007). Polysubstance use and its correlates in adolescent ecstasy user in Taiwan: Addictive Behaviors Vol 32(10) Oct 2007, 2286-2291. *Yu, M., & Stiffman, A. R. (2007). Culture and environment as predictors of alcohol abuse/dependence symptoms in American Indian youths: Addictive Behaviors Vol 32(10) Oct 2007, 2253-2259. *Zill, N., & Nord, C. W. (1994). Running in place: How American families are faring in a changing economy and an individualistic society. Washington, DC: Child Trends. *Zimmerman, M. A., Copeland, L. A., Shope, J. T., & Dielman, T. E. (1997). A longitudinal study of self-esteem: Implications for adolescent development: Journal of Youth and Adolescence Vol 26(2) Apr 1997, 117-141. *Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation Seeking and Substance Use and Abuse: Smoking, Drinking, and Drugs. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Zwane, I. T., Mngadi, P. T., & Nxumalo, M. P. (2004). Adolescents' views on decision-making regarding risky sexual behaviour: International Nursing Review Vol 51(1) Mar 2004, 15-22. External links Little Kids Health Teen Health Drinking pressures Category:Crowd psychology Category:Group processes Category:Interpersonal influences Category:Peer relations Category:Social psychology Category:Youth